ADDIE Explained: Implementation
By: Brittany Eichler and Owen Beatty
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
- List and describe the five stages of diffusion of innovations.
- Identify and describe the five attributes that contribute to the rate of adoption of innovations.
- Define key terms.
- Describe and discuss the various delivery methods presented in the chapter including their benefits, drawbacks, and the role of the instructors and learners.
- Determine given a particular instructional scenario an appropriate delivery method.
- Implement a delivery method.
Introduction
“The purpose of the Implement(ation) phase is to prepare the learning environment and engage the student” (Peterson, 2003). Implementation is the phase of instructional design in which the instructional plan is put into effect. The instruction can be facilitated by an instructor or can be unguided. This chapter will focus on instructor facilitated instruction. The instructor is responsible for the implementation of the instructional plan and the learners receive the instructional message.
It is important to note early in this chapter that instructional designers should be cautious when approaching contexts where a design for minimal, or no guidance is requested. Kirshner, Sweller, & Clark (2010) make the observation from previous research that, “Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.” This has implications for the instructional designer and implementation process since few tools can supplant the subject expert. As Mayer (2004) states, educators need to “move educational reform efforts from the fuzzy and unproductive world of ideology – which sometimes hides under the various banners of constructivism – to the sharp and productive world of the theory-based research on how people learn” (p. 18).
Considerations that impact the implementation phase of the instructional design process begin before the actual implementation begins, and these implementation considerations continue throughout the design process. Designers and instructors need to be mindful of the decisions made along the design process and how these decisions will impact the actual use, or implementation, within the learning environment.
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the designer and/or instructor to various methods of instructional delivery and the considerations that need to be made when choosing a method during the implementation phase. Due to the importance of making meaningful and effective instructional decisions, it is imperative that all aspects of the processes of adoption are taken into account. The adoption of innovation is comprised of transferrable guidelines or stages to consider when introducing new ideas and tools. These new ideas and tools will be referred to as “innovations” throughout the rest of this chapter. In most innovation acceptance (change), or adoption, the adopter traverses through five stages as suggested by Everett M. Rogers (2003). These stages: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation will be explained in detail in the coming section. Additionally, it is imperative that the change agent (instructional designer and/or instructor) is aware that the adopters (could also be the instructor and/or learner) generally move along this path of stages. Knowing, and understanding, these changes will assist in designing the implementation phase.
In addition to explaining the process of adopting innovation, this chapter also provides some specific delivery methods for instruction. The methods to be discussed are: instructor-led lecture, visual presentations, discussions, cooperative learning, case studies, brainstorming, role-playing, and field/lab experience. While this list of methods does not encompass all possible implementation strategies, this chapter attempts to present a cross-section of available tools that span multiple learning theories and models. The learning theories expanded on include: behaviorist models, constructivism and social constructivism, and experiential learning.
Diffusion of Innovation
Adoptions of Innovations
In order to facilitate the adoption of new ideas and tools within the learning environment, it is important that all parties understand the process by which innovative ideas and methods are cognitively adopted. Rogers (2003) suggests that, “The perceived newness of an innovation, and the uncertainty associated with this newness, is a distinctive aspect of innovation decision making”. As a result of this “uncertainty”, understanding this process as a model may ease the transition. The five stages in the model suggested by many diffusion researchers are:
- Knowledge
- Persuasion
- Decision
- Implementation
- Confirmation
Briefly, the five stages can be described in the following behaviors expected to occur at each stage. The expectation within the knowledge stage is that the adopter (which would be the designer and/or instructor in this context) would determine if a need for an innovation is actually present. The adopter will evaluate the need and explore possible innovative solutions. This process can also work in reverse as well, as adopters may also react to the introductions of a new innovation initially (and not the need) and determine if there is a need at that time.
The persuasion stage occurs when the adopter begins to decide if they find the new innovation acceptable. During this process, the adopter “actively seeks information about the new idea, decides what messages he or she regards as credible, and decides how he or she interprets the information that is received” (Rogers, 2003). It is through this process that an adopter begins to decide if the innovation will be accepted.
The decision stage includes the adopter actively participating in tests that will assist in determining if the innovation will be adopted or rejected. It is important to note that this process can justifiably lead to either of these results: adoption or rejection. If the innovation is adopted, it is adopted in full and recognized as the solution of the issue initially defined. If the innovation is rejected, it can be classified as either active or passive rejection. According to Rogers (2003), active rejection consists of considering adoption of an innovation and then deciding not to adopt it and passive rejection is never really considering the use of the innovation in the first place.
The next stage in this model is implementation. As the name suggests, this occurs when the innovation is put to use. This process is generally not a one-time endeavor. New innovation implementation is generally considered a long-term process. While the definition of “long-term” can be ambiguous and is heavily determined by the context, it is important to know the use of a new innovation within instructional design is usually not simply “plug and play”. There is generally a period of continued education and professional development associated with the adoption. As the innovation is implemented, it is likely that an event referred to as re-invention may occur. Re-invention is defined in this context “as the degree to which an innovation is changed or modified by a user in the process of its adoption and implementation” (Rogers, 2003). It is important to note that re-invention is not necessarily a negative, as it can lead to improved results.
Confirmation occurs as the adopter evaluates the decision to adopt and implement the innovation for efficacy. During this stage it is possible that the innovation will be subsequently discontinued. The evaluation can be based on many measures: learner performance, ease of use, instructor satisfaction, cost to maintain, etc. If consideration to discontinue the use of the innovation occurs, it is often a result of dissonance. Dissonance is “an uncomfortable state of mind that an individual seeks to reduce or eliminate”. It is important, for continued use of the innovation, that the designer seeks methods to reduce or eliminate dissonance. Some methods to achieve reduction of elimination include: increasing knowledge of the innovation, understanding how to incorporate the innovation, and continued support and training.
Attributes of Innovation
In addition to the innovation-decision process it is important for the instructional designer to consider the factors that contribute to the rate of adoption of innovation. Rogers (2003) identifies five attributes of innovations: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability.
The concept of relative advantage refers to the idea that the innovation is actually an improvement over the current item or modality. If the adopter perceives that the innovation’s value does not exceed the current item used, it is much less desirable and unlikely to be adopted. In contrast, an innovation that is determined to be of greater value is more likely to be adopted.
Compatibility is in reference to how well the innovation incorporates into the adopter’s schema. This schema could include the adopter’s professional, pedagogical, and socio-cultural ideologies. Conflict with any of these schemas, whether directly impacting the innovations actual use, could threaten adoption. As indicated by Rogers (2003), “Any new idea is evaluated in comparison to existing practice. Thus compatibility is, not surprisingly, related to the rate of adoption of an innovation.”
Complexity is how difficult it is to comprehend, incorporate, and actually use the innovation. While complexity does not impact rate of adoption to the same degree as relative advantage and compatibility, complexity of an innovation is can negatively impact the rate of adoption. If an innovation is perceived to be too difficult to incorporate or use, it is less likely to be adopted in the first place or more likely to be discontinued if it is adopted.
Trialability refers to how readily an innovation can be tested or used with a limited commitment. For example, software is often introduced in stages, or “betas”, these stages of progressively more complete versions, permit the testing of new software on a limited basis. This testing permits users to identify issues and ultimately to help increase adoption. Trialability has a positive impact on the rate of adoption for early adopters, but is less impactful on the rate of adoption for later adopters (Rogers, 2003).
Observability, the least impactful attribute, refers to “the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others” (Rogers, 2003). Innovations that are more difficult to observe or difficult to explain and operationalize are less likely to be adopted.
These attributes all contribute, as previously stated, to the rate at which innovation is adopted. Most entities fit in the adoption of innovation curve. As you can see in the Innovations Adoption Lifecycle figure below, adopters tend to fall uniformly along this curve with the earliest adopters tending to show less aversion to risk and fewer dogmatic tendencies. Those in the late majority and laggards tend to hold on to traditions and tend to be much more risk-averse.
Figure 1. Innovation adoption lifecycle according to Diffusion of Innovations Theory.
Implementation Check Point
Delivery Methods
There are many methods for delivering instruction. When choosing a delivery method, the educational goals, the purpose of instruction, instructors, learners, and materials must be taken into account. Given a certain instructional situation, one method might be more appropriate than others. It might be necessary to combine several methods in certain instances. The delivery methods that will be discussed are lecture with visual aids and various small group instructional techniques including discussion, cooperative learning, brainstorming, role-playing, and case study. For each of this methods the purpose, benefits, and drawbacks will be discussed, the role of the instructor(s) and learners will be detailed, and possible instructional materials will be described.
Lecture with Visual Aids
Overview
The first delivery method that will be discussed is lecture. Lecture, also known as group presentation, is the most commonly used form of instruction. In fact, it is usually what comes to mind when most people hear the word instruction. Lecture is when the instructor or instructors deliver information to the learners through words, visuals, demonstrations, or dramatizations. This delivery method can be employed with both large and small groups (Morrison, Ross, Kalman, & Kemp, 2011).
Purpose, Benefits, and Drawbacks
There are several reasons to choose lecture as the delivery method for instruction. Lecture is quite convenient when it is necessary to present information to a fairly large group of learners. The number of learners that can be instructed using lecture is limited only by the size of the facility instruction is taking place in (Briggs, Gagne′, Wager, 1992).
The objectives of instruction can also influence the decision to choose lecture as the implementation method. Lecture can be used to meet cognitive domain objectives involving the knowledge process as well as affective domain objectives relating to the receiving process (Bloom, 1956). Lecture is a convenient method for introducing new topics, summarizing previous instruction, establishing relationships between new and earlier topics, and re-emphasizing prior instruction. Modification of the lecture is left up to the instructor who can make the presentation longer or shorter, increase or decrease the difficulty, and add or remove content as needed (Morrison, et al. 2011).
There are some limitations to using the lecture method. The instances where learners can actively participate might be limited by the circumstances of the environment. The group of learners might be too large to allow for the opportunity for the instructor(s) to ask and receive questions during the presentation (Morrison, et al., 2011). Instructional objectives in the affective domain relating to responding might not be met by lectures (Bloom, 1956). Additionally, a lecture does not provide many opportunities for practice and experimentation and so objectives in the psychomotor domain may not be able to be met either (Bloom, 1956).
Since the instructor controls the material and is disseminating it to a group, there is little opportunity for individualized instruction. The instructor sets both the pace and the content of the lesson. Lectures covering the same topic(s) presented by different instructors might contain different material. Learners who do not learn at the same pace that the material is being presented may struggle or become bored during a lecture (Morrison, et al. 2011). Depending on the number of learners, the instructor provided feedback may be impossible.
The Expectations of Instructors and Learners
The instructors are responsible for distributing the instructional information to the learners. Usually, the instructors talk and the learners listen. Hence, there is a certain amount of passivity on the part of the learners. In order for instruction to be effective, it is important that instructors have certain attributes and employ various techniques to encourage more active learning (Gagne′, Briggs, Wager, 1992). According to Prince (2004), active learning is usually stated as “any instructional method that engages students in the learning process” and is generally characterized by two things: learners thinking and learners doing.
Instructors who effectively use the lecture method are typically engaging and charismatic and have a palpable passion for their subject matter (Gagne′, Briggs & Wager, 1992). Instructors must be organized, prepared, and knowledgeable about the subject matter being presented. They must be up to date on the current events in their field and capable of answering clarification questions (Morrison, et al., 2011).
Instructors using the lecture method can use several techniques to promote active learning. They can prepare various handouts such as note shells, problem sets, or diagrams and charts that need to be filled in during and/or after the lecture. Instructors can also suggest note taking and encourage students to paraphrase the lecture information in their own words (Morrison, et al., 2011).
Another way instructors can promote active learning is to introduce activities into the lecture. One activity is to take short pauses throughout the lecture where learners consider questions posed by the instructor pertaining to the material. If the time and situation permits, the learners can discuss their thoughts with those sitting near them and the instructor can illicit some volunteer responses (Prince, 2004).
While the instructors are responsible for preparing and presenting the lecture, the responsibility on the students is even greater. They are responsible for learning. There is a high degree of self-study and self-motivation needed by the learners when the lecture method is used. The instructor can motivate active learning, but ultimately the students need to choose to become active in their learning. They must choose to take notes, complete handouts, and consider and discuss questions. Learners may need to put in time outside of class to synthesize the material and seek instructor feedback. Also while an instructor can remind students of the material they need to remember, it is ultimately up to the students to recall the material and if they do not supplement the instruction on the own (Gagne′, Briggs, Wager, 1992).
Instructional Materials
Most of the information presented in lecture is done so orally. However, most instructors employ various media to assist their implementation. Commonly use media during lecture are chalkboards, whiteboards, and projectors. The instructor can prepare a presentation to accompany their lecture using PowerPoint or another presentation program. They can prepare handouts for the learners as well as discussed above (Morrison, et al., 2011).
Visual aids are an important medium for presenting instruction. Visuals can take the form of photos, diagrams, videos, animations, and film. Visuals can be realistic, meaning they represent a real aspect of the world, or they can also be logical and can be used to show connections or diagram a concept. Visuals can help stimulate interest or facilitate understanding. Research has shown that visuals have a positive effect on learning but only if they are used in a meaningful way (Richey, et al., 2011).
Visuals can be used during a lecture to enhance the delivery of instruction. One theory that supports this is dual coding theory. This is the idea that visual cues enhance a learning experience. These cues can be color, sound, or text. These details enhance the realism of the instruction. Paivio (1991) suggested that we have two different routes in our memories that process information. One route is for verbal information and the other is for visual. The two systems are interconnected, but since the visual route contains some text as well as images, information is more likely to be retained through the visual route (Richey, et al., 2011).
Figure 2. Dual Coding Theory.
Information in the form of visual or verbal stimuli is taken in by visual and auditory systems in the brain. Information from these systems is related to an existing schema (associative structure) in the brain. Adopted from (Mayer, 1993).
Small Group Instruction
Overview
Small group instruction involves grouping learners together in pairs or in groups of up to ten to work together to pursue learning. The size of the group depends on the purpose of instruction. The groups of learners can pursue various learning activities such as tutoring, discussion, and recitation (Gagne′, Briggs, Wager, 1992). Small group instruction can take on various forms. In this chapter, the small group instructional methods of discussion, cooperative learning, brainstorming, case study, and role-playing will be discussed.
Purpose, Benefits, and Drawbacks
These small group formats are characterized as social and active learning tasks. The rationale for using social and active learning tasks is rooted in several learning theories. For the purposes of this text, we will focus on three: constructivism, social constructivism, and experiential learning.
Jean Piaget (2013) suggested that learners internalized knowledge through the process of accommodation and assimilation. Accommodation occurs when a learner recognizes new information that changes their previous notions. For example, a child’s first exposure to animals may be a dog, which has four legs. This may lead the child to develop a schema, idea, that all animals with four legs are dogs. As the child acquires new information and experiences, they realize this generalization is incorrect and that other animals can have for legs, thus they accommodate new information within their schema. Assimilation occurs as this new information continues to accumulate and the learner adopts the new information to modify their previous schema. Much like the child in the example, adults experience this same process. The effectiveness of the small group instructional method of brainstorming, for example, can, at least in part, be attributed to this construct. As the learner participates in brainstorming, whether individually or in a group setting, it is likely the learner will have their schema challenged and some change, or changes, can occur.
Social constructivism moves beyond the individual learner into social settings to explain how learners’ schema is influenced by their social surroundings. Social constructivism or constructionism has its roots in Lev Vygotsky’s writings from the early 20th century. As Vygotsky (2012) studied language development and thought, he wrote, “In the instrumental act, humans master themselves from the outside – through psychological tools”. These psychological tools shape internal human processes via their external, or interpersonal interactions. Vygotsky (2012) went further by stating, “each function in the child’s cultural development appears twice; first between people and then inside the child…”. We will take the liberty to replace “child” with “learner” in the above statement to illustrate the importance social learning tools have on meeting learning objectives.
As with constructivism, social constructivism also sees learning taking place as the learner accommodates and then assimilates new information to modify their schema. Social constructivism theory places the impetus of this change on the interaction of the individual with their social surroundings.
Experiential learning theory focuses on the learning process of the individual rather than the learning outcome. This theory focuses on concrete experiences and how these experiences may influence the learner’s schema. John Dewey’s (1938) model reflects this theory as it illustrates the path from impulse and experience, observation, knowledge (schema formation) and internal judgment. This internal judgment is influenced by how the attained knowledge and new schema are endorsed by social interactions. Once the judgment is rendered the learner can then internalize this into higher-order, purposeful action.
Figure 3. Kolb’s experiential learning cycle.
David Kolb (1984) developed a similar model, Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle, shown above, that traces learning from concrete experience to reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Similar to Dewey’s model, Kolb’s model is cyclical; it does not simply end with new knowledge gained. A learner’s knowledge is under constant influence from further observations and conceptualizations. Regarding experiential learning theory Kolb (1984) states, “Ideas are not fixed and immutable elements of thought but are formed and re-formed through experience.”
In addition to promoting active learning and developing social skills, small group instruction allows students the opportunity to think about and express their ideas regarding the material. It also gives learners the opportunity to receive feedback from both the instructor and their peers. Working in small groups can encourage the development of intrapersonal and communication skills. Also, by monitoring the groups, instructors can receive feedback from the learners regarding their understanding of the material (Richey, Rita C.; Klein, James D.; Tracey, Monica W, 2011).
A drawback of using small group instruction is that it requires, as the name suggests, the use of small groups. This might be impossible given the number of a particular group of learners. Also, in order to form groups to be able to have a meaningful experience, it is usually necessary for prior readings or instruction to occur. If any or all of the group members lack any essential prerequisite instruction or knowledge on the subject, the small group instruction may be ineffective.
Discussion
Overview
Discussion involves small groups of learners considering and conferring on a subject, problem, or situation. Discussion can occur between the instructor and the learners wherein the instructor leads the discussion and poses questions for the learners to answer to promote discourse. Beyond posing questions and mediating learner responses, the instructor takes a back seat and allows the learners to do most of the talking. Discussion can also occur between the groups of learners when the instructors provide a prompt or prompts for them to discuss. Discussions between the learners are usually employed for the purpose of solving a specific problem (Morrison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp, 2011).
Purpose, Benefits, and Drawbacks
The discussion method can be an effective way to meet learning objectives in the cognitive and affective domains. It requires learners to organize and demonstrate their knowledge about a particular subject matter. Learners must be able to analyze and synthesize both their thoughts and the thoughts of others regarding a particular topic of interest. Discussion can also be used to encourage learners to consider information from previous instruction and its application to the topic of discussion. Discussion can be also be useful for instructors to gauge learner understanding of a particular topic.
The constructivist view of education supports the use of discussion. Wilson (1996) characterized constructivism with the following three tenants (p. 136): “Understanding is in our interactions with our environment”, “Cognitive conflict or puzzlement is the stimulus for learning and determines the organization and nature of what is learned”, and “Knowledge evolves through social negotiation and through the evaluation of the viability of individual understandings”.
Discussion is thought of as “social negotiation” and requires that learners consider or puzzle over a certain topic with their peers. Different learners bring different perspectives to the discussion and can lead to a better understanding of or new insights to the learners own thoughts and opinions.
It is important to note that learners are neither subject matter experts nor instructors. Thus small group formats such as discussion should be used as supplemental to other forms of instruction (Morrison, et al., 2011). Unless guidelines are set and the instructor monitors instruction, learners may become off task during discussion. Some learners may not be comfortable in group settings or lack maturity when discussing certain topics. If the instructor is inexperienced or unclear of their discussion expectations, discussion may be ineffectual or outright damaging (Morrison, et al., 2011).
The Expectations of Instructors and Learners
Depending on the discussion methods, instructors are expected to either lead or facilitate the discussion. If the instructor is leading the discussion, they should be knowledgeable about the topic and prepare probing and eliciting questions to promote the discussion amongst the learners. If the discussion is between the learners, the instructor will be acting as the facilitator. The instructor will provide topics to discuss and guidelines and regulations for said discussions. Instructors will monitor discussions and provide prompts to keep learners on task. The instructor must encourage learner involvement in the discussion.
While quite a bit of responsibility when using discussion falls on the instructor, just as much if not more is on the learner. Learners are expected to complete any prerequisite readings or activities that are necessary to prepare for discussion. Each group member should contribute equally to the discussion and be considerate and respectful of other member’s perspectives.
Instructional Materials
In order to facilitate the discussion, the instructor might prepare a handout with probing and eliciting questions for the learners to consider. The handout could also include the instructions and guidelines for the activity as well as space to record any ideas and solutions the groups come up with.
Cooperative Learning
Overview
Morrison, et al., (2011) define cooperative learning as “a specific type of group activity that attempts to promote both learning and social skills by incorporating three concepts into instruction: (1) group rewards, (2) individual accountability, and (3) equal opportunity for success”. The members of the group are held accountable for both their own learning and the success of the group as a whole. Group members are encouraged to assist each other during the instruction process. As Johnson and Johnson (1988) point out, it is important to note that cooperative learning is not a simple matter of putting the learners into groups, but rather having the learners become a group that “sinks or swims” together.
Purpose, Benefits, and Drawbacks
Cooperative learning can be used to exchange ideas and promote mastery of a subject matter. It can also be used to complete a group project concerning a certain subject matter. Like other methods of small group instruction, cooperative learning promotes the development of communication and interpersonal skills.
Research on the effectiveness of using cooperative learning methods has shown a positive impact of learner achievement, interpersonal skills, and self-esteem. Slavin (1990) examined 67 studies of the achievement of learners comparing individual instruction and cooperative learning and found that 61 percent of the studies showed higher learner achievement when cooperative learning methods were used. In these studies, when cooperative learning was successful, there were very clear expectations of both the individual learner’s responsibilities and the group’s responsibilities as a whole.
As with other small group instructional methods, it is important to note that learners are not subject matter experts, so when mastery is the goal careful monitoring of the groups is necessary. Guidelines and expectations need to be put into place in order to assure the learners have equal stake in the success of the group.
The Expectations of the Instructor and Learners
During instruction, the instructor takes on the role of facilitator. They are responsible for creating the learner groups, providing the activity or project, and monitoring the group’s progress. In many ways, the instructor can be thought of a taking a more behind the scenes role. The success of the cooperative learning implementation results from careful planning on the part of the instructor and/or designer. There must be clear guidelines and expectations for what the individual learners are responsible for and for what the learners are responsible for as a group.
The learners must fulfill their prescribed roles within the group and complete their assigned tasks. If any prerequisite learning or supplemental learning is required, the learners must be sure to take part in this to assure success.
Instructional Materials
The instructional materials used depend on the task that cooperative learning is being used to address. As with other small group methods, the instructor might want to prepare a handout for the learners that contains the instructions and guidelines for the activity.
Brainstorming
Overview
Brainstorming is a small group technique that can be used to generate creative, new, and useful ideas in an open, less constrained environment. The group works together by providing and discussing their own ideas concerning an appointed task. This technique is often used to help define a project, diagnose issues, consider and identify possible solutions, and discuss the pros and cons of possible solutions.
Purpose, Benefits, and Drawbacks
Brainstorming encourages cooperation and active learning by requiring students to discuss and attempt to solve a problem. When determining the effectiveness of creative problem solving using both brainstorming and non-brainstorming techniques, Parnes & Meadow (1959) note that “significantly more good quality ideas were produced under brainstorming instruction than under non-brainstorming instructions”.
There are criticisms of brainstorming, however, with many critics noting that when conducted in a group setting brainstorming can lead to social loafing and lack of critical evaluation of presented ideas. Social loafing occurs when a member, or members, of the group do not participate at an equal level of the other members. While a fundamental stipulation of brainstorming is “no idea is a bad idea” promotes the restriction of providing any feedback that can be interpreted as negative. Also the social aspect of brainstorming can lead to off task discussion. There are guidelines that can be put in place by the instructor to help mitigate these issues.
The Expectations of Instructors and Learners
The instructor acts a facilitator of the brainstorming activity. It is important that the instructor defines the process at the outset of the activity. In an educational setting the instructor/facilitator must define the objectives and purpose of the brainstorming activity. Additionally, participants must be aware of any constraints that will apply to the process. For example: limited time for idea generation, minimum participation requirements, how ideas will be recorded, roles of each group member, etc.
Learners must be actively engaged in the brainstorming activity, follow the set guidelines and parameters, and have completed any assigned readings or assignments necessary for the activity. Vetting of ideas generated during the brainstorming process is critical to ensuring the meaningful instruction. While criticism should not be permitted to occur during the generation of ideas, the identification of weaker ideas is encouraged. Ideas should classified and categorized. Similar ideas should be grouped together.
Once ideas are generated and organized, it is also important that the learners operationalize these ideas and implement them within the context established before the session. If the process is not deemed meaningful and purposeful, participants will find little value and be more likely to engage in social loafing.
Instructional Materials
Usually brainstorming is an oral exercise, but it might be necessary for the instructor to encourage note taking or provide a handout to the learners. The handout could contain the instructions and guidelines for the activity as well as space to record any ideas and solutions the groups come up with.
Role-Playing
Overview
Morrison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp (2011) defined role-playing as “the spontaneous dramatization by two or more persons of a simulation relating to a problem.” Essentially, learners act out a role in a given scenario. The learners make interpretations about the role based on their own experiences and opinions. The other learners observe the dramatization and then discuss what they feel happened in the scenario (Morrison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp, 2011). Role-playing can also take the form of a debate where a leaner or learners take the pro side of an argument and another learner or learners take the con.
Purpose, Benefits, and Drawbacks
Role-playing is an effective tool for exploration, particularly in complex social situations. Learner opinions are formed based on their life experiences. These opinions can be influenced by what the learner reads, their social influences, expert opinions, and the opinions of “the majority”. It is possible that these opinions can be calcified over time, particularly if other opinions are not available for debate and comparison. History is rife with examples of opinions that become codified within a social system, i.e. stereotypes, and lead to negative impacts. Role-playing has been shown to facilitate opinion change (Janis & King, 1954).
In the Janis & King (1954) study, the purpose was “…to determine whether or not overt verbalization, induced by role-playing, facilitates opinion change”. The experiment was designed using three unique role-playing simulations and participants occupied both active and passive roles. Based on the results from all three simulations, the experiment found “…that overt verbalization induced by role-playing tends to augment the effectiveness of a persuasive communication.”
Beyond opinion change, role-play has been shown to be an effective tool to simulate situations where actual practice might be dangerous. For example, medical practitioners (medical doctors, nurses, etc.) often engage in role-play simulations during their educational endeavors. These role-play simulations can be used to supplement simulations technology. It can also be a stand-alone tool for teaching clinical nursing skills (Comer, 2005). Role-play in nursing education has also been found to be particularly useful for communication skills training. In a literature review of studies using simulated patients to teach communication skills in medical professionals, Lane and Rollnick (2007) found, “The majority of studies that compared the use of simulated patients and/or role-play with no intervention appear to indicate that the use of simulated patients and/or role-play in training leads to a significant improvement in the use of communication skills.”
Debate is considered an effective form of active learning as it is thought to engage the learner’s critical thinking and analytical skills. The debate format of learning encourages the learner to research the objective topic, understand the nuances of the topic, and be prepared to respond to potentially obscure information. All of these skills move the learner beyond simply collecting facts, and into the area of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The possibility of acquiring these skills is not unique to the debate format, but as a form of active learning, it has the ability to help the learner, “…to think critically, to analyze and synthesize information to solve technical, social, economic, political, and scientific problems, and to work productively in groups” which “are crucial skills for successful and fulfilling participation in our modern, competitive society”(Grabinger & Dunlap, 1995).
Debate has been shown, empirically, to be an effective tool to achieve a greater degree of both comprehension skills and higher order cognitive skills in learners (Omelicheva & Avdeyeva, 2008). In their study of political science learners, Omelicheva and Avdeyeva (2008) compared the debate format with a lecture format to determine the impact on learner’s cognitive skills. Their findings showed a statistically significant increase in the mean scores of cognitive measures for the learners who participated in the debate format versus lecture format. “The tests demonstrated that in our classes students acquired better comprehension, application, and critical evaluation skills when a controversial topic was taught in the debate format” (Omelicheva & Avdeyeva, 2008).
The Expectations of Instructors and Learners
When deciding to use role-playing or debate to meet learning objective, some very specific considerations should be kept in mind. It is important that the designer works closely with the instructor to do the following: clearly define the objectives, choose the context and roles of participants, expectations for learner preparation, the type of role-playing, discussion, and assessment.
Based on both the research conducted in the area of active learning and the debate format, it is clear that using debate can be an effective method of implementation of intruction within the educational context. If this methodology is chosen, the following should be considered according to Oros (2007):
- Explanation of approach and evaluation criteria
- Practice debates with oral and written feedback
- Graded debates with a group grade and team-focused feedback
- Individual written assignment to follow in-class debate
- In-class post-debate discussion
Similar to most instructional methods, it is important that the process is well organized with clear expectations and performance measures set by the instructor. Active learning and learner-driven learning tools open the instructional environment up to potential chaos from disorganized learners and the many distractors that may impact the process.
The instructor acts as a moderator when using role-playing or debate. The instructor should be very clear and firm about their expectations for the role-playing or debate exercise. Guidelines for appropriate language and attitudes should be clearly expressed to learners before an activity can be done. The instructor needs have clear goals for the activity and are ready to step in to guide learners towards the goal if they get off-task during the activity.
The topics and persons being discussed and acted out during role-playing might be of a sensitive nature. As such an instructor might want to seek parental permission if implementing this method in a K-12 setting. Also it might be beneficial for the instructor to facilitate a discussion with the learners about appropriate behaviors for this type of activity. Instructors might want to poll the learners prior to the role-playing activity to discover their pre-existing opinions on the role-play scenario. This can help guide instruction. Also, the instructor might want to assign learners roles or a side of an argument that have conflicting opinions on their own. This challenges learners’ opinions and forces them to consider the situation from a different perspective.
Instructional Materials
The instructor should prepare guidelines and regulations for the role-playing activity that can be disseminated using a handout or other media such as a PowerPoint presentation. The instructor can also create a handout with questions and activities that the learners can complete prior to or post the activity.
Case Study
Overview
Case study methods involve using either actual historical situations and events, or close analogs to actual historical situations and events, to inform learners on a specific topic and to achieve specific learning objectives. Often learners are expected to analyze the context and actions taken in the situations. Learners discuss what they think was done right and what they think was done wrong in the case study and how they would have acted if they were in the same situation (Morrison, Ross, Kalman, and Kemp, 2011).
Purpose, Benefits, and Drawbacks
Case study methodology has long been used in schools of business and law, and more recently in teacher education programs. Lee Shulman (1986, p. 11) describes case study as “knowledge of specific, well-documented, and richly described events”. It is these “richly described events” that can make learning “real” and can engage learners in active participation, analysis, and synthesis.
Despite the extensive use of case studies in the above-mentioned contexts and the intuitive and anecdotal support for the method, there is not overwhelming empirical evidence to support the use of the method. As stated by Katherine Merseth (1996), “The extent to which individual writers assert the benefits of cases and case methods far outweighs the actual empirical work that confirms these benefits”. Despite the lack of expansive empirical literature, there are studies that support the use of the case study methodology. Judith Kleinfeld (1992a, p. 16), in a study on the development of pedagogical knowledge in language arts determined from the research that the case method: “Succeeded in increasing students’ understanding of a sound rationale for selecting literature, their ability to anticipate students’ problems and perspectives, their repertoire of pedagogical methods and curriculum alternatives, and their general understanding of fundamental purposes in the teaching of literature.”
As discussed previously, case study methodology has been long used in the schools of business and law. A primary factor in the use is the perceived development of problem-solving and decision-making skills in learners. These skills are influenced by the learners’ ability to conduct research and synthesize this research. These skills are similarly required for the building of theory, with the theory being defined as “…a body of understanding” (Christensen & Carlile, 2009). When used in this capacity, to develop problem-solving and decision-making skills to develop a “body of understanding”, “Case studies can comprise a solid foundation for the theory building courses because they can be structured to display the phenomena in all its complexity” (Christensen & Carlile, 2009).
In further support of using case study methodology to enhance problem-solving and decision-making skills, Kleinfeld (1991a) studied 54 students, divided into two groups – one using case study and one using discussions and readings – to determine if the case study method “could develop students’ skills in…developing problem-solving skills”. The results of the study showed that “students taught by the case method approach showed significantly greater ability to analyze an educational problem” (Kleinfeld, 1991a) versus the control group.
The Expectations of Instructors and Learners
When implementing case study methodologies, the instructional designer and instructor should develop a strong framework for analysis. Considerations to ensure that the case study develops a framework for analysis and actively engages the learner:
- Develop a systematic framework for analyzing the case
- Define issue
- Define analysis goals
- Context of issue
- Identifying facts of the case
- Propose alternatives to decisions made in the case
- Learner should make recommendations, and provide support for recommendations
- Additional readings may help frame the context
- Use both formative and summative assessments
- Formative (qualitative) – this assessment could be in the form of discussion-based feedback from the instructor and peers
- Summative (quantitative) – this assessment could be in the form of rubrics or even examinations
Implementation Check Point
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, the implementation phase of the ADDIE instructional design model was discussed. Implementation, instructors, and learners were defined. The process by which new ideas are refined and adopted was described using the five stages of the diffusion of innovations: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. Various delivery methods were introduced starting with lecture with visual aids and followed by methods of small group instruction including discussion, cooperative learning, brainstorming, role playing, and case study. An overview and the theoretical foundations of each delivery method was provided as well as a discussion of the purpose, benefits, and drawbacks of implementing each method. Then a description of the role and expectations of the instructors and learners during each method was given. Lastly, some suggestions for educational materials to use during instructional delivery was provided.
Discussions
- Compare and contrast the ADDIE phases with Rogers’ five stages of adoption of innovations.
- Think about the process of implementing new instructional materials, processes, or concepts and provide some specific examples of how these new materials, processes, and concepts might be rejected (both actively and passively). How can the instructional designer mitigate these possible outcomes?
- Trialability is an important attribute that contributes to the rate of adoption of an innovation. Describe several examples of how trialability might be operationalized in the instructional design process.
- Thinking about the Innovation Adoption Lifecycle; how might teachers/instructors in an educational setting fit within this lifecycle and how might an instructional designer mitigate the resistance to innovation adoption.
- Describe a situation within your organization where a specific implementation strategy/tool may be appropriate (lecture, small group discussion, cooperative learning, brainstorming, role-play, case study). Discuss, as specifically as possible, the implementation and adoption issues that may arise with the strategy/tool you choose.
Implementation Practice Assessment
The end-of-chapter practice assessment retrieves 10-items from a database and scores the quiz with response correctness provided to the learner. You should score above 80% on the quiz or consider re-reading some of the materials from this chapter. This quiz is not time-limited; however, it will record your time to complete. The scores are stored on the website and a learner can optionally submit their scores to the leaderboard. You can take the quiz as many times as you want.
Assignment Exercises
1) Choose a scenario in which you need to implement instruction to a group of learners. Describe the learners, instructors, and the educational objective(s). Decide how you would implement this instruction using a lecture and using a small group instruction method. Discuss the pros and cons of using each method in your scenario.
2) For the following five instructional situations, describe the method of implementation you would employ and why. In each situation, describe the role of the instructor(s) and learner(s) and choose instructional strategies and materials to use to facilitate instruction.
a) Situational leadership training for managers at a company
b) Patient interaction for doctors or nurses
c) CPR training
d) Public Speaking
e) Deriving the distance formula from the Pythagorean Theorem
3) You’re an instructional designer implementing a new computer-based learning tool in a K-12 classroom. The teacher is not technologically savvy and is hesitant to use this new tool. Explain what steps might be taken to support the teacher and mitigate their concerns.
4) Considering Rogers’ five attributes that impact the rate of adoption of innovations, please explain how these attributes would affect implementation decisions that you, as an instructional designer, would make.
5) Please describe a learning objective, or objectives, that might be best served using a case study delivery method. Please discuss the applicable learning theories that would apply to the implementation of this method.
Group Assignment
Continuing with the group assignment from previous chapters, choose a delivery method or methods for your instructional design plan. Provide justifications for the method(s) you choose. Be sure to describe the role of the instructors and learners during implementation and develop the instructional materials you will use to facilitate instruction.
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