Delivery Methods in Distance Education

By: Kairan Kang, Feiya Luo, Max Sommer and Hongyu Zhan

Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

• Learners will be able to give a synopsis of the history of delivery methods in distance education that lead us to today.
• Learners will be able to differentiate between asynchronous and synchronous learning activities and provide justification for each.
• Learners will be able to describe Learning Management Systems, asynchronous collaborative tools, authoring tools, and assessment tools for distance education including the features and implementation issues of each.
• Learners will be able to describe Virtual Classrooms and synchronous collaborative tools of distance education including the features and implementation issues of each.
• Learners will be able to describe the five factors to consider when selecting a delivery method and use them to guide an appropriate method selection for the given situation.
• Learners will be able to discuss basic trends in delivery methods of distance education and provide details on at least two specific trends that are expected to be seen in the near future.

Introduction

In this chapter we will discuss the development and characteristics of delivery methods used in distance education. In this book, we define the delivery methods as the different technologies, media as well as the technology-assisted instructional strategies instructors may use to deliver lectures, facilitate interaction and assess learning performance. In a media theory approach, incorporating technologies into instruction creates a more authentic and realistic learning experience for learners. Also, the right choice of technology will benefit both learners and instructors by enhancing and improving the pedagogical process. After reading this chapter, readers should have a better idea about what existing technologies are out there to select from, the pros and cons of each technology, as well as what to keep in mind while selecting the right combination of technologies for their best interest. First, we will briefly discuss the history of distance education delivery methods. Then we will explore asynchronous methods of delivery, followed by synchronous methods of delivery in distance education. Following these methods, we will describe models of selecting appropriate methods of delivery. Finally, this chapter will conclude by taking a look ahead to see what the future has to offer in terms of trends of distance education delivery methods.

A Brief History of Delivery Methods in Distance Education

Print

Many people tend to leave out print as a medium when talking about educational technology. It may not appear to be as advanced as more recent media, but print is one of the earliest and most widely used technologies in education. Print media takes many forms, the most frequently seen being textbooks, study guides, manuals, correspondence study materials, and more. It is easy to manage and provides possibility for individual learners to construct their own unique learning experiences; learners can highlight texts that are important to them and add notes next to the relevant content. Learners do not have to worry about their notes being erased without saving as in using an electronic book. With print media, learners learn by reading.

Audio and Video

Audio and video technologies also gained popularity among learners of distance education in the late 20th century. Some forms of this type of technology are cassettes, radio, television and broadcasting. Instead of limiting learners to using visual sense only, audio and video opened up new possibilities for all learners outside of traditional schools, including learners with visual impairment. It also brings up the authenticity level of instructional content in that learners are not only reading about abstract concepts, but also are able to relate to real-life scenarios presented. As much as this technology leaves learners plenty of room to study at their own pace, one downside is that the development of the learning materials in the form of programs does require a long preparation process and high production quality.

Computer-based

Computer-based learning was made possible by the increasing accessibility of personal computers since the 1980s. The most common products used with computers are floppy discs, compact discs (CDs) and video compact discs (VCDs). Unlike TV or broadcasting programs that are set for a specific time, floppy discs, CDs and VCDs grant learners with far more flexibility in terms of the time and location of instruction and learning. The only concern for learners back then was the access to computers and that they might be physically constrained to sit in front of a computer.

Internet-based

Thanks to the British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee, who invented the World Wide Web in 1989, distance education has entered a golden age. With the Internet, the accessibility of distance education greatly improved. Communication between learners and instructors who are physically far apart is now bridged by all kinds of means – web chats, emails, online learning agencies, learning management systems, social media, video conferencing software, and more. These are the types of tools and methods that we are wielding to establish a successful distance education experience today.

In the remainder of the chapter, we will discuss contemporary delivery methods, which we categorized as two major classifications: asynchronous and synchronous. According to Josepf Haslam (n.d.) of eLearning, asynchronous delivery methods are those in which “instructors provide materials, lectures, tests, and assignments that can be accessed at any time.” This means the learning takes place at the learner’s convenience. Synchronous delivery methods, on the other hand “are those that require learners and instructors to be online at the same time (Josepf Haslam, n.d.)”. This means the learning occurs at the same time of instruction. We will begin by looking at asynchronous delivery methods in distance education, then explore the synchronous methods.

Learning Management Systems

Definition and Overview

Implementing a learning management system (LMS) into a course is a method that is commonly used for asynchronous distance education. IGI Global (2016) defines an LMS as follows:

The term LMS generally refers to systems that support the management of learning activities as well as course-related administrative activities. Common features include discussion or chat space, test creation and delivery tools, file sharing tools, student and course management features, and assignment and grade management utilities, among others.

This technology acts as a resource that can house everything necessary for a course – from content to communication tools to assessments, and everything in between. For a more detailed synopsis of the many affordances that learning management systems offer, we can look at the following table (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Features of Learning Management Systems.

Learner Tools	Support Tools	Technical Specification
1. Communication Tools Discussion forums File exchange / internal email Online journal/notes Real-time chat Video services/whiteboard	1. Administration Tools Authentication Course authorization Registration integration Hosted services	1. Hardware / Software Client browser request Database request Server software Unix server Windows server
2. Productivity Tools Bookmarks Orientation / help Searching within course Calendar / progress review Work offline synchronize	2. Course delivery Tools Course management Instructor helpdesk Online grading tools Student tracking Automated testing and scoring	2. Pricing / Licensing Company profile Costs Open source Optional extras Software version
3. Student involvement Group work Self-assessment Student community building Student portfolios	3. Curriculum Design Accessibility compliance Course templates Curriculum management Customized look and feel Instructional standards compliance Instructional design tool Content sharing / reuse

As you can see, there is a lot that LMSs have to offer. In this chapter, we will look at these most relevant features of LMSs:

• communication and collaboration;
• evaluation and assessment;
• content resources;
• site management, and;
• learner tracking.

Following a synopsis of these features, we will discuss some implementation issues of LMSs and provide a few of the most prominent examples of LMSs being used in distance education today.

Communication and Collaboration

One feature that makes using an LMS a valuable method for distance education is its ability to facilitate communication and collaboration. Effective online communication and collaboration of learners is well-documented in literature. Therefore, managing interaction and promoting the sharing of information between learners is an important affordance of LMSs. Below is a list of communication and collaboration tools that a LMS can offer for an online course.

• Announcements – An announcements page allows instructors to post information to learners about anything pertaining to the course. This is where instructors will provide updates to learners for occurrences like changing a due date for an assignment, providing a new content resource, or answering a question in one place that many different learners had separately. The main idea is that it allows the instructor to send all of the learners a message at once, with the LMS notifying the learners of this message.
• Discussion Board – One of the most useful tools an LMS offers is the discussion board. This is where an instructor can facilitate a discussion about the subject matter and learners can interact asynchronously. Learners (and instructors) have the ability to read the posts on the discussion board and either reply directly to someone’s post or reply to the initial post prompt. This is a great place for academic discourse and discussion.
• Email – Many LMSs come equipped with an internal or external mail system so that learners and instructors can communicate directly with anyone in the course.
• Chats – Chats are available for synchronous communication between learners in a course. Synchronous communication tools will be discussed in detail later in this chapter.
• Groups – The creation of groups is an available tool within an LMS. Instructors can split learners into groups and allow them to have their own discussions, share their own files and information, and work collaboratively on specific subject matter.

These are the primary features of the communication and collaboration affordances that an LMS can offer. Some LMSs uses Learning Tools Interoperability (LTI), a framework developed by the IMS Global Learning Consortium to provide a standard for secure, real-time communication between learning applications and platforms, to enable the interactions between tool, content, and resource consumers and providers. Some examples are the Chat Tool and the Canvas Data Portal (Blackboard Inc., 2016). Other affordances can include creating learner portfolios, providing individual files to learners, sign-up lists for learner work, the creation of blogs or journals, and more.

Evaluation and Assessment

This section discusses the evaluation and assessment features that an LMS can offer. There will be a section on Assessment later in this chapter that will explore this area of distance education more deeply.

LMSs allow instructors to evaluate learners in a few different ways. The following is a list of tools the LMS offers to assess learner performance and learning.

• Assignments – Instructors can create assignments in LMSs that can have any content the instructor decides on for directions. Learners are able to submit files electronically so the instructor can easily download them and grade them online. This tool allows the bulk of the deliverables to be collected.
• Tests – LMSs allow instructors to create tests to assess the learners. These tests can be timed, and the style of the test can be customized to meet the needs of the instructor. This tool is used to formally assess learners in online courses.
• Plagiarism detection systems – This is an online software that compares papers submitted by learners to billions of pages of content on the Internet and documents that other learners have submitted into the system. It is used to make sure learners are not involved in plagiarism.
• Gradebook – The Gradebook allows instructors to record and present up-to-the-minute grades to learners. Instructors can provide feedback in different media forms to learners as well.

Content Resources

LMSs allow instructors to move away from the traditional notion of having a single textbook as the content for a course. Instead, this feature of an LMS allows learners to engage in multimedia content resources to learn the material. Instructors can create and share content with learners, such as lectures, notes, presentations, study guides, readings or more. Another feature that makes an LMS an effective delivery method for distance education is its ability to link external sources as content. It is easy for instructors to include multimedia content that can engage and motivate learners. Instructors can link resources such as websites, images, videos, audio files, or more.

Site Management

An LMS usually offers a basic default template that is fully customizable. There is a customizable menu that can include sections such as Assignments, Modules, Announcements, Discussions, Syllabus, and whatever else the instructor wants to be available for the learners. The content of these pages is also customizable, and, as stated earlier, external links can even be provided within these pages. As mobile phones become smarter and continue to have technological advancements, many LMSs have made a mobile version of the application available for learners. These applications provide quick and simplified access to the LMS so learners can check their grades, view assignments, stay up-to-date with announcements, post to discussion forums, and more, directly from their mobile device.

Learner Tracking

One very useful tool the LMS allows for is tracking learner progress and performance. This allows instructors to use the LMS to provide them with the frequency and time that specific learners are online and the hits on various resources that are provided. Both instructors and learners are also able to access information such as grades and feedback in these LMSs. This can offer valuable information to instructors about the participation of their learners and if their resources are being used, as well as allow learners to stay on top of their learning process.

Implementation Issues

While using an LMS is an effective delivery method for distance education, implementing them into a course does come with its issues. First of all, instructors must make sure the LMS is constantly updated with the latest course information. This is imperative to a successful distance education course because the LMS is the sole resource learners have. If the information is not properly up-to-date, there will be communication issues and misunderstandings between instructors and learners. Another issue is that there are strict guidelines when it pertains to using third party materials, such as journal articles or other external sources that may not be made available to the public for free. Instructors must be aware of this and follow guidelines enforced at their specific institution.

Most Prominent Examples*

The following is a list of the most prominent LMSs that are used in distance education today (according to Capterra, 2016):

• Edmodo;
• Moodle;
• Blackboard;
• SuccessFactors;
• Skillsoft;
• WizlQ inc;
• Cornerstone;
• Instructure;
• Schoology;
• Canvas;
• ANGEL Learning.

Asynchronous Collaborative Tools

Definition and Overview

Asynchronous collaborative tools allow access to course-related materials, lectures, tests, and assignments by learners at any time. Trends in the field of distance education have shifted in recent history. Part of this shift includes student interaction becoming the heart of learner-centered educational environments (Beldarrain, 2006). Because of this, using collaborative tools as part of the delivery method of distance education courses has become popular and new tools are being presented into the field. In this section, we will discuss the following features of asynchronous collaborative tools:

• Types of Interaction;
• Email;
• Discussion Forums;
• Collaborative Files;
• Multimedia Collaboration, and;
• Social Media.

Following the synopsis of these features of collaborative tools, we will discuss the issues pertaining to implementing these tools and point out the most prominent examples of collaborative tools in distance education today.

Types of Interaction

The primary goal of collaborative tools in distance education is to facilitate interaction. There are different types of interaction that takes place in education. Moore (1989) distinguishes between three types of interaction: learner-content interaction, learner-instructor interaction, and learner-learner interaction. As the features of collaborative tools are discussed, we will mention the type of interaction that the given tool fosters.

Email

Email was invented in 1972 by Ray Tomlinson (Peter, 2004). Now, email is one of many common ways that instructors and learners communicate asynchronously in education. Email allows for messages to be sent directly to personal mailboxes, and provides the ability to attach files. Email is used for learner-instructor interaction and learner-learner interaction.

Discussion Forums

As stated in the Communication and Collaboration portion of the Learning Management section, discussion forums are an effective tool for facilitating interaction among learners. Discussion forums provide a virtual space online where learners can discuss content, ask questions, and reply to each other’s posts. This collaborative tool is usually used for learner-learner interaction and learner-class interaction; however, discussion forums allow instructors to participate as well.

Collaborative Files

Collaborative files are web-based files or documents that allow multiple people to work together on one single file at any time. They can edit the file or document as they please, and it is constantly updated with the most current version for when another person logs on to edit it. This allows instructors and learners who may not be able to physically get together to collaboratively edit the same files when they are available.

Using collaborative files grants learners the time of saving updated versions of the same document, renaming it, and emailing these updated versions to group members. Many collaborative files also keep track of editing activities by color coding edits and comments, allowing for easy understanding of who did what among team members. Collaborative files usually promote learner-learner interaction, but they can also be used learner-class interaction if a class-wide file is being developed.

Multimedia Collaboration

One feature of collaborative tools that has evolved with technological advancements is the ability to collaborate with the use of multimedia tools. These are tools that promote interaction but through the use of different types of media. This can include text, audio files, visuals, videos, and more. This is a great tool for accommodating learning preferences of different learners as they interact with one another.

Blogs, wikis, and podcasts are used in distance education to promote multimedia collaboration. Blogs are websites that contain a user’s entries about a topic, functioning as an online journal. Wikis are collaborative websites that can be edited for content by anyone who has access to it. Podcasts are usual audio files that can be easily downloaded and listened to on computers or mobile devices. These multimedia collaborative tools promote learner-instructor interaction, learner-learner interaction, and learner-content interaction.

Social Media

Social media is a medium that is “user created, user-controlled, flexible, democratic, and both very transparent and not very so” (Moran, Seaman, & Tinti-Kane, 2011, p.4). Content can get shared on social media websites, then it invites conversation, an exchange of information, and more. The primary goals of using social media in distance education is to promote individual professional development and broaden institutional reach. Using social media in distance education allows information sharing in a less formal way. The social media environment can promote learner-instructor interaction, learner-learner interaction, and learner-content interaction.

Implementation Issues

With collaboration and interaction comes implementation issues. This is because the interaction takes place among the learners, rather than with the instructor. The primary issue with implementing collaborative tools is communicating the expectations of the interaction to the learners. If the learners are unaware of the expectations of the interaction, any type of communication can follow. Instructors must describe the types of interaction they want the learners to take part in explicitly.

For collaborative tools like wikis, blogs, and some collaborative files, plagiarism can take place due to the fact that it is open to the public. This can lead to quality and copyright issues. Monitoring and moderation of these tools are necessary for successful implementation of distance education.

Most Prominent Examples*

The following is a list of the most prominent asynchronous collaborative tools that are used in distance education today (according to Common Sense Education (2016):

• NowComment;
• VoiceThread ;
• Popplet;
• Stormboard;
• GroupMaker;
• Mural;
• Baiboard;
• Google Tools;
• ePals;
• Chalkup.

Authoring Tools

Definition and Overview

An authoring tool is a software which allows instructors to use multimedia elements to produce and present course relevant content. An authoring tool can also be used by learners to produce and deliver their presentations and projects.

In education, interaction exists between the learner and the instructor who prepares the content. In distance education, instructors strive to achieve the same aims held in common with all other educators (Moore, 1989). For achieving this goal, Moore (1989) stated that “the instructor plans or creates curriculum or a program of content to be taught, seeks to stimulate or maintain learners’ interests, including self-direction and self-motivation, tries to organize learners’ application of what is being learned or manipulation of information and ideas that have been presented, and provides counsel, support, and encouragement to each learner” (p.89). In distance education, various types of authoring tools facilitate instructors to produce and present their content in an interactive and sequential way which could effectively engage learners in the learning process.

Authoring tools develop sheets comprised of text, audio, image, video and animation. According to Artola, Sanz, Moralejo, Pesado & Baldassarri (2015), “Authoring tools are programs that allow users to create their own multimedia objects without the help of a computer specialist. These tools were developed with the idea that all individuals could have a way to express their ideas in digital format” (p.116). By developing instructional media using authoring tools, produced materials can increase engagement and effectively lead learners to access diverse learning materials in the distance education environment.

Authoring tools include the use of Adobe Animate (formerly called Flash), PowerPoint, DreamWeaver, and various programs that specifically support distance education content standards such as SCORM (Shareable Content Object Reference Model). In this section, we will discuss the following features of authoring tools:

• SCORM technology;
• multimedia presentations;
• authoring tools types, and;
• Interactions as a result of authoring tools.

Following the synopsis of these features of authoring tools, we will discuss the issues pertaining to implementing these tools and point out the most prominent examples of authoring tools in distance education today.

SCORM Technology

Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) is a set of technical standards for distance education products. SCORM defines a specific way of constructing Learning Management Systems and educational content in an effective, coordinating way. SCORM is a powerful tool for anyone involved in distance education. “The different versions of SCORM govern the same two things: packaging content and exchanging data at run-time. Content can be created one time and used in many different systems and situations without modification” (Epignosis LLC, 2013). The characteristics of SCORM allow instructors to effectively prepare and organize content materials.

Multimedia Presentation

“Multimedia authoring tools are also known as Authorware. It is a program that helps the author [user/programmer] write hypertext (or) create a multimedia application” (Jotuts, n.d.). Multimedia authoring tools involve editing, presenting, and structuring multimedia elements. The multimedia elements can include text, audio, moving images, visuals, animations, and video clips. Developers or instructors can effectively combine these elements to create an interactive presentation environment. Banks (1988) indicated that “Authoring software provides an integrated environment for binding the content and the functions of your project” (p. 95). According to Banks (1988), with multimedia authoring software, you can make:

• video productions;
• animations ;
• games;
• interactive websites;
• demo disks and guided tours;
• presentations;
• kiosk applications;
• interactive training. and;
• simulations, prototypes, and technical visualizations.

Having the ability to develop all of these different types of media in presentations gives developers and instructors many options. It allows instructors to accommodate learners by having many different learning preferences represented.

Types of Authoring Tools

There are numerous development models that can be used for multimedia applications. According to Banks (1988), based on the way of sequencing and organizing content, the different types of authoring tools can be classified into three categories. In a content-presentation system, these categories could be combined to create a more interactive educational environment. These types of authoring tools are card- or page-based tools, icon-based, event-based tools, and time-based tools.

• Card- or Page-Based Tools – In these authoring systems, elements are organized as pages of a book or stacks of cards (Banks, 1988, p.95).  According to Banks (1988), “These tools are best used when the bulk of your content consists of elements that can be viewed individually, like the pages of a book or cards in a card file” (p.96). Within this authoring system, you can link pages or cards into organized sequence, and you can select and jump to any pages you want through a structured navigation pattern.
• Icon-Based, Event-Driven Tools – In these authoring systems, multimedia elements and interaction cues (events) are organized as objects in a structural framework or process. (Banks, 1988, p.96) It provides a visual programming approach which allow users to develop and manipulate multimedia elements. Here is an example from Banks (1988) about the sequence of using icon-based, event-driven tools:

First you build a structure or flowchart of events, tasks, and decisions, by dragging appropriate icons from a library. These icons can include menu choices, graphic images, sounds, and computations. The flowchart graphically depicts the project’s logic. When the structure is built, you can add your content: text, graphics, animation, sounds, and video movies. Then, to refine your project, you edit your logical structure by rearranging and fine-tuning the icons and their properties (p.104).

• Time-Based Tools – In these authoring systems, elements and events are structured along a timeline. For example, Adobe Animate is a time-based authoring environment. Time-based tools are good for creating a message which contains a beginning and an end (e.g., animations). Within a time-based authoring environment, “sequentially organized graphic frames are played back at a speed that you can set. Other elements are triggered back at a given time or location in the sequence of events” (Banks, 1988, p.97). According to Banks (1988), Time-based tools allow developers to add navigation and interactive control within their programs.

Implementation Issues

The primary implementation issues of authoring tools in education are choosing appropriate authoring tools for different contexts, learners’ accessibility to content, and learner autonomy. In the domain of distance education, it is important to consider the context in which authoring tools will be used.

Accessibility of content must also be kept in mind when using authoring tools in distance education. Treviranus, Richards, Jacobs and  McCathieNevile (1999) argued that “It is imperative that authoring tools generate content that is accessible, and that they handle the accessible authoring practices applicable to the language/format being edited” (p.5). Instructors should provide consistent structure and navigation to make sure that all objects in the program are equally accessible.

Finally, learner autonomy is an important aspect of education to keep in mind. According to Sharples et al. (2009), “Children have always been able to bring homework into the classroom for assessment or bring in a personal or found object, such as a leaf or a stone, to illustrate a lesson, but now they can systematically capture their experience of learning outside the classroom, through images, notes and audio recordings” (p. 239). Compared to traditional classroom setting, in distance education environment, learners take their own responsibility of their learning process and they can access content at any time. Thus, learner autonomy is crucial to distance education. Because of the spatial separation of learner and instructor, distance education requires high levels of autonomy from learners.

Most Prominent Examples*

The following is a list of the most prominent authoring tools that are used in distance education today:

• Adobe Animate;
• Microsoft PowerPoint and Word;
• Prezi;
• Google Slides;
• Haiku Deck;
• Reveal.js/Slides.com;
• Keynote for iCloud;
• Articulate Storyline;
• Adobe Captivate;
• Lectora Inspire.
• iSpring;
• Articulate Studio’ 13.

Assessment Tools

Definition and Overview

Assessment tools provide instructors with the affordance to assess learner performance, keep track of learner progress as well as provide feedback to learners. Assessment in distance education should be viewed as a system for evaluating student academic achievement. The most important concerns to assessment in distance education involve using appropriate assessment tools to gather and interpret data from learners and then using that data to guide future instruction and learner improvement.

Through technical support, assessment tools in distance education provide technological support which allows instructors to know how long a learner spends on a question and the choices learners are making when navigating through a course. In addition, through assessment tools of distance education, instructors are able to gain information of each learner’s contribution to the class. For example, when a question is posed online, each learner will respond with their opinions. While, in a traditional classroom, when the instructor asks a question, only one or a few learners will have the opportunity to answer.

In this section, we will first provide a synopsis of the principles of using assessment tools in distance education. We will then discuss the following features of asynchronous assessment tools:

• Internet-based assessment;
• formative assessment;
• feedback;
• self-assessment;
• team assessment and peer assessment;
• online tests and quizzes, and;
• E-portfolios.

Following the synopsis of these features of assessment tools, we will discuss the issues pertaining to implementing these tools and point out the most prominent examples of assessment tools in distance education today.

Principles of Assessment in Distance Education

Pennsylvania State University (1998) developed a set of principles to guide assessment in distance education. They are as follows (p.7):
Assessment instruments and activities should be congruent with the learning goals and skills required of the learner throughout a distance education program or course. Assessment and management strategies should be integral parts of the learning experience, enabling learners to assess their progress, to identify areas of review, and to reestablish immediate learning or lesson goals. Assessment and measurement strategies should accommodate the special needs, characteristics, and situations of the distance learner.
Distance learners should be given ample opportunities and accessible methods for providing feedback regarding the instructional design of the distance education program

On the other hand, we can investigate principles of assessment in distance education from a criterion point of view. This would include:

• establishing outcome-based goals;
• assessing collaboration and interaction;
• using assessment tasks that can be scored and accumulated at a later time;
• using alternative forms of assessments, and;
• have an assessment program that is conducted in an on-going way.

We will now move on to discuss the features of assessment tools in distance education. According to Kim, Smith and Maeng (2008), “Based on several educational philosophies such as behaviorism and constructivism, there are various features of assessment in distance education emphasized from different points of view” (p.4). In this section, we will discuss crucial features that could be used to implement appropriate assessment strategies in distance education.

Internet-Based Assessment

The development of network, computers, and especially the Internet allows instructors to keep track of learning within the distance education environment and learner interactions, both with peers and with the instructor. In the domain of distance education, technology functions as a means of supporting more efficient methods of assessment. For example, “the virtual classroom’s electronic data storage, retrieval, and exchange system represent concentrated, organized, and highly accessible artifacts of the learning transactions” (Hack & Tarouco, 2000, p.2). Tucker (1995) indicates that “The CMDL (Computer Mediated Distance Learning) environment offers a significant advantage to comment profiling in that students’ comments do not need to be translated from a handwritten form on paper and pencil surveys” (p.6). Using the Internet as a mediating tool in the assessment of distance education serves as a link to connect instructors, learners, resources, and learning outcomes.

Ongoing Assessment: Formative Assessment

Kim et al. (2008) indicate that “Assessment in distance education should be a continuous, ongoing process” (p.4). Instructors should gather information about learners’ daily contributions to their distance learning activities, such as online discussions. Also, learners can use feedback from formative assessments to realize what their strengths and weakness are. So that they can improve as learners as the distance education course goes on. Compared to the traditional classroom environment, ongoing assessment or formative assessment can serve as a function of efficiently tracking individual’s learning progress.

Feedback

According to Kim et al. (2008), “Compared to the traditional instruction environment, the distance education environment made this central role of feedback achievable in terms of time and access to information” (p. 5). The easy-to-use electronic tools can support proper and immediate feedback in the distance education environment. For example, an LMS (learning management system) will usually allow the instructor to give instant feedback to learners to indicate their mistakes and provide explanations of the correct answer when necessary.

Self-Assessment

Self-assessment should be a major component of distance education (Robles & Braathen, 2002). Through the process of self-assessment, learners will be able to know if they meet the demand of the required learning objectives. Participation in distance education provides channels for learners to measure their own learning and achievement. For example, online pre-tests are an important way for learners to assess themselves because they can receive immediate feedback to recognize their current levels of knowledge before starting a course.

Team Assessment and Peer Assessment

According to Freeman and McKenzie (2002), “because of the remarkable effects of collaborative learning in a classroom, many online courses also aim to develop students’ ability to work as part of a team and include team assessment task such as presentation, projects, case studies, reports, debates and so on” (p.6). Assessment of collaborative learning and interaction in distance education is important for learners to experience the value in teamwork or collaborative work.

Online Tests and Quizzes

Just like the traditional educational environment, tests and quizzes are very imperative to the learning process in distance education. Using software to develop interactive online tests allows instructors to gain more information and save time during the assessment process, avoiding developing assessments by hand and grading by hand. Through the use of assessment tools, instructors can record answers into a file and review them later. They also can easily time the test and providing individual feedback to each student based on their test results. For example, Epignosis LLC (2013) explained that:

Based on the characteristics of technology support in distance education, testing and quizzing can be made unique in a LMS by randomizing question and answer order. This is especially useful when a learner has to re-do a test which he/she previously had poor performance on so that the test is not completed by memory, but rather by actually thinking through the correct solution once again.

These affordances of assessment tools allow instructors to assess their learners in many different ways, while saving time and energy in the process.

Nowadays, faculty frequently use test-item banks, video clips, etc., which publishers provide for them when they adopt the textbook. According to Lowney (2012), “A publisher textbook adoption might also include access to a publisher-hosted LMS or a ‘course pack’ that populated an institution-hosted LMS. Instructors were happy to adopt these ‘turn-key’ courses-in-a-box because creating their own video and interactive supplements, test item banks and building their own LMS courses was both onerous and unrewarding or just downright impossible.”

E-portfolios

According to Stefani, Mason and Pegler (2007), “E-portfolios are a valuable learning and assessment tool. They can serve as an administrative tool to manage and organize work, to present course assignments and act as the medium for learners to record their learning goals, outcomes and achievements” (p.9). A Web-based portfolio has the performance of three R’s: representation, reflection and revision. (Singh & Ritzhaupt, 2006). E-portfolios provide authentic assessments of student learning and achievement. Generally, learners use e-portfolios to organize and showcase their work. In addition, E-portfolio provide information to instructors of their progress in the course through accumulated online homework, comments, instructor’s feedback, and projects. With e-portfolios, instructors are able to collect information about learners’ strengths and weaknesses. Assessment will consist of monitoring and measuring learning through the work showcased in e-portfolios.

Implementation Issues

The application of assessment tools provide many affordances in distance education, there are some implementation issues that instructors must keep in mind. When it comes to assessment selection, instructors need to select and integrate appropriate assessment tools based on the context of the learning. For example, depending on specific learning goals, assessments like recall quizzes should combine with assessments calling for analytical and higher-order thinking, such as case studies and essays. In addition, instructors should make sure that they carefully design instruction that learners perceive as clear and useful.

Most Prominent Examples*

The following is a list of the most prominent assessment tools that are used in distance education today:

• Google Forms+ Flubaroo
• ThatQuiz
• PollEverywhere
• ProProfs (Quiz Maker)
• Respondus
• QuizPedia
• QuestBase
• Learningpod
• Riddle

Synchronous Delivery Methods

Synchronous distance education refers to the distance learning process in which instruction and learning occur at the same time. It is time sensitive but geographically insensitive (King et al.,2001, p.11). Synchronous delivery methods enable real-time, web-based instruction and simultaneous interaction (learner-content interaction, learner-instructor interaction and learner-learner interaction). We will now discuss various synchronous delivery methods, including their features and their implementation issues.

Virtual Classroom

Definition and Overview

A Virtual Classroom is an online environment which allows instructors and learners to interact and communicate synchronously by using video, audio, online chat, etc. (Parker & Martin, 2010, p.135). In this section, we will discuss the following features of the virtual classroom:

• real-time information sharing;
• real-time interaction;
• flexible instructional pacing, and;
• didactic conversation.

Following the discussion of the features, we will focus on some implementation issues of virtual classrooms. Then, we will provide some prominent examples of contemporary utilization of virtual classrooms.

Real-time Information Sharing

A virtual classroom often has different software and tools to support instruction, which enables real-time information sharing. The following are tools and software that can be used for information sharing and application sharing in a virtual classroom.

• Web conference – By using web conference, instructors can create one-way instruction like teaching live video for learners to watch simultaneously. A more common use of web conference is a two-way interaction between instructors and learners. Instructors can present their content while at the same time the learners are able to ask questions and interact by clicking on the “raise hands” icon or icons that represent other actions.
• Document sharing – In virtual classes, instructors can upload documents to the viewing window for every student to see. When the instructor goes through each page/slide of the document, learners’ screens will follow along. Most of the virtual classrooms use document sharing tools to display PowerPoint slides, handouts, or other resources in the form of Word documents or PDF files. By using this tool, real-time information sharing becomes possible and the traditional printing of handouts are no longer necessary.
• Whiteboard – In virtual classrooms, instructors are able to use annotation tools to type, write, or draw on the “whiteboard.” It works like an actual whiteboard in a traditional classroom. Instructors can use this “whiteboard” tool to write down important information or use it in other learning activities such as brainstorming.

Real-time Interaction

Virtual classroom enables real-time interaction during the synchronous learning process. This is an important feature because Garrison (1989) and Garrison and Shale (1990) stress the core role of real two-way communication in educational experiences, regardless of the separation of instructor and student (Gunawardena & McIsaac, 2004, p.361). As for virtual classroom, the real-time learner-instructor interaction and learner-learner interaction is one of the notable features. Compared to the asynchronous learning environment, virtual classrooms provide opportunities for instructors to give real-time instruction and timely feedback to learners. Learners in a virtual classroom are also able to communicate with each other through a web or video conference.

Online Polling

According to Klaas and Baggaley (2003), the online polling system is “an asynchronous or real-time process of information gathering, obtained via responses to question(s) mediated by Web-based formats” (p.1). In a synchronous distance education environment, online polling allows instructors to post questions to learners in a web conference and display all poll results in real time. After the facilitator post the question, learners can respond to it immediately and all the participants in the conference will see results changing in real time.

Flexible Instructional Pacing

Similar to traditional classrooms, virtual classrooms enable instructors to modify and pace their instruction based on student needs. They can pause at anytime to answer learners’ questions regarding the learning materials, similar to a traditional classroom setting. Real-time learner-instructor interaction enables instructors to evaluate learners’ understanding by asking questions, resulting in modification of their instruction. This can include adjusting the pace and content in lecturing based on learners’ levels of performance or their characteristics.

Didactic Conversation

Didactic conversation is a pervasive characteristic of distance education which could be fostered by two-way communication at a distance (Holmbery, 1989, p.47). Based on Holmbery’s theory, distance education is more similar to conversational interaction between the instructor and learners. In virtual classrooms, knowledge is developed and exchanged in an active conversation, rather than one-way transmission from the instructor to learners. For example, audio chat allows learners to talk via a microphone or telephone with the instructor and other learners (Parker & Martin, 2010, p.163). It helps build both learner-learner conversation and learner-instructor conversation and create collaborative and communicative learning environment.

Implementation Issues

Along with all of the useful features that virtual classrooms offer, there are some implementation issues that must be considered if using these tools for delivery. The main implementation issues include scheduling, technical issues, transitioning issues, and a lack of practice.

Technical Issues

Working with virtual classrooms often requires instructors to acquire adequate management sophistication. Instructors must have knowledge of how to use computers and manage the software they are using. For example, when using Adobe Connect (a web conference software) for an online class, instructors should know how to create a conference and invite all the learners to the conference. During class, they need to use different tools to present their lecture and make annotations. They should also be able to give permission for a certain student to speak, or divide learners into several groups for a group discussion activity. In addition, instructors must assemble all of the materials and handouts prepared in an electronic version. Instructors’ lack of competence in operating a virtual classroom may lower the level of instruction quality and learner participation.

Transitioning from Traditional Classrooms to Virtual Classrooms

Transitioning from traditional classrooms to virtual classrooms can result in various problems. One area where issues can arise is the restriction of the learning environment. Unlike a traditional classroom with a fixed location, virtual classrooms require learners to find their own appropriate learning environment. During class, external interference like noise might affect learners and distract them from learning. Moreover, it can be hard for some learners to focus on the class all the time because in many virtual classrooms, participants do not necessarily see each other. Another problem that may occur during the transition is learners’ failure to become accustomed to interacting and having conversations online. In Fallon’s (2011) study, some learners claimed that they didn’t feel comfortable to ask questions or speak in a virtual classroom. These issues can have a negative effect on their student performance and motivation (Fallon, 2011).

Since virtual classrooms only enable web-based instruction, learners may not have opportunity to do experiments or practice what they learn at class. For subjects like science and medicine, hands-on learning is crucial and necessary. Therefore, learning relevant knowledge merely from virtual classrooms may result in the lack of practice in the area of experience and practice.

Most Prominent Examples*

The following is a list of the most prominent tools for creating virtual classroom environments in distance education today:

• Adobe Connect;
• AT&T Meeting ;
• GoToMeeting;
• AnyMeeting;
• Google Hangouts;
• Cisco Webex;
• Skype;
• Messengers;
• Facetime;
• Blackboard Collaborate.

Synchronous Collaborative Tools

Definition and Overview

Synchronous collaborative tools are web-based collaborative software and applications which enable real-time interaction and collaboration. By using synchronous collaborative tools, learners can work in a group with other members online and become more engaged and motivated in course-relevant activities. As real-time interaction becomes more and more prevalent in distance education, the utilization of collaborative tools in online classes and after-class discussions is gaining popularity. In this section, we will discuss the following features of synchronous collaborative tools:

• synchronous interaction;
• the role of instructors and learners in online collaborative learning environment, and;
• student engagement;

Following the discussion about the features of collaborative tools, we will describe some issues concerning their implementation. Finally, we will provide some of the most prominent examples of collaborative tools used in distance education today.

Synchronous Interaction

Based on the theory of three types of interaction mentioned in the virtual classroom section above, a prominent feature of synchronous collaborative tools is they facilitate learner-instructor interaction and learner-learner interaction to a great extent. Some common synchronous collaborative tools are listed as follows:

• Web conferences – Many instructors use web conferences software as a collaborative tool to enhance learner-instructor and learner-learner interaction. In terms of learner-instructor interaction, both the instructors and learners have the ability to talk as long as their computers or laptops are equipped with microphones. Learners can also simply answer a close-ended question like “Can everybody hear me?” by clicking the “raise hand” button. To enhance learner-learner interaction, instructors could divide learners into several groups for group activities. At the same time, instructors are able to monitor and listen to each group’s discussion, just like a traditional classroom.
• Online chat-Online chat software such as Skype and Messenger can provide video chat or voice-call services. Participants can use online chat software to create a video conference in which all of the participants are able to see each other, engage in discussions as a group, and send instant messages. Online chat can enhance learner-learner interaction as it provides a good option for learners to form a group discussion. A big difference between web conference software and online chat software is that in online group chat, participants are not able to share documents, submit and answer questions using the Q&A pod, or wait in queue to speak. Therefore, online chat software may be more suitable for after-class group discussion or informal discussion, rather than instruction.
• Office 365 – Office 365 is a group of software and services provided by Microsoft through which users could access social networking services. They are great tools for teamwork as learners could share their files stored online with people, have online multi-party HD video and audio meeting, and be synchronous with their teams by using group chatting.
• Google Docs – Google Docs is a collaborative learning tool which allows participants to share and edit documents online. Participants can set different levels of access (can edit, can comment and can view) for their documents. Google Docs facilitates interactions by allowing participants to edit the same document simultaneously and see others’ edit in real time. Learners can use Google Docs for a collaborative project, and instructors can also use it for giving timely feedback to student assignments.

The Roles of Instructors and Learners in Online Collaborative Learning Environment

The roles of instructors and learners in an online, real-time collaborative learning environment can be very different from those in a traditional classroom. Based on Serce and Yildirim’s (2006) findings, the role of the online instructors switch from “the central focus of instruction” (p.105) to a more facilitative role which allows social interaction and collaboration among learners. By observing student performance during group activities, instructors also evaluate and assess student performance. Learners in the synchronous collaborative learning environment are responsible for actively participating in group activities and interacting with one another. Fallon’s (2011) research about online learner-learner interaction indicates that “online students relied more on each other to support their learning” (p.440).

Implementation Issues

While synchronous collaborative tools provide a lot of effective affordances, there are some implementation issues that must be considered when including these methods into distance education. The main issues of using collaborative tools include technical issues, scheduling, and a lack of presence of the instructor.

Technical Issues

Synchronous online collaborative tools require instructors and learners to have a certain level of prerequisite technical and operational knowledge about relevant software. Their technical ability will directly influence their performance in collaborative work. In addition, the features of some software may not support collaborative work adequately. For example, online chat software like Skype does not provide the option for learners to “raise hands” or “wait in queue to speak” in a group video conference.

Scheduling

Unlike a traditional classroom or virtual classroom which have a fixed time, many after-class group discussions use collaborative tools like Skype. When using tools like this, it is necessary for all the participants to set up a time that is convenient for everyone. It increases the difficulty of implementation in terms of scheduling.

Another disadvantage that after-class online group discussions may encounter is the lack of presence of the instructor. In both traditional and virtual classrooms, instructors can observe student performance during group activities resulting in modification of their instruction or clarification of their expectations. Since an after-class online discussion is arranged and authored by learners themselves, the outcome may not be satisfactory if some of the participants are inactive in the discussion or not sure about the instructor’s requirements.

Most Prominent Examples*

The following is a list of the most prominent synchronous collaborative tools that are used in distance education today:

• ProofHub;
• MindMeister;
• BigMarker;
• SlideRocket.

Delivery Methods Comparison and Selection

 Comparison of Delivery Methods

• • • • Table 4.2: Comparison of Asynchronous Delivery methods.

Tool	Goal	Requirements	Characteristics of Tool
LMS	Communication and collaboration Evaluation and assessment Content resources Site management Learner tracking	Access to Internet Purchase of software	Self-paced Visual Can be auditory
Asynchronous Collaborative Tools	Learner-instructor interaction Learner-learner interaction Learner-class interaction After-class group discussion Follow-up interaction	Access to Internet Most software is free	Self-paced Visual
Authoring Tools	Course content producing and presentation, (auxiliary to instruction) Packaging and sequencing content Manipulating and integrating multimedia elements into course content Learner-instructor interaction Learner-content interaction	Can be done online or offline Most software is free	Self-paced Visual Can be auditory Multimedia presentation Interaction control
Assessment Tools	Evaluation and assessment of learning Giving feedback Tracking learning process	Access to Internet Purchase of software	Self-paced Visual Can be auditory Internet-based Instant and on-to-one feedback Ongoing and continuous assessment

• • • • Table 4.3: Comparison of Synchronous Delivery Methods.

Tool	Goal	Requirements	Characteristics of Tool
Virtual Classroom	Real-time content sharing and interaction, lectures	Access to Internet Purchase of software	Interactive Visual, verbal and auditory
Synchronous Collaborative Tools	Group discussion and interaction	Access to Internet Most software is free	Self-paced Visual, verbal and auditory

Selection of Delivery Methods

There are many different media selection models available to guide the selection process. In general, there is an agreement on five integral factors to consider: content, learner characteristics, instructional strategies, environment, and management (Richey, Klein, & Tracey, 2010, p.141). First of all, it is essential to identify the content of instruction and the required length of content delivery. For example, abstract concepts may take longer to make sense and require the instructor to use visual aids to help convey the idea, whereas more intuitive content may take less time and be easily grasped with less technological redundancy.

It is also important to learn about the group size of learners, the background knowledge they bring in, as well as their learning goals and motivation, etc. For example, if the entire learner group is technology savvy, then they may consider using more advanced technologies. However, if the majority of learners are more reluctant “technology laggards,” they may learn more effectively with simple content presentation tools. It is also important for instructors to consider which types of technology will foster beneficial interaction, assess learners efficiently, and evaluate the learning process.

Instructional strategy is another factor to consider before selecting the most appropriate delivery method. Questions that instructors may want to consider are “What is the desired learning goal?”, “How will I evaluate the learning outcomes?”, and “What instructional approach should I take: individualized or standardized, interactive or self-paced, or another?”

The learning environment factor refers to the setting that instruction and learning take place. Technology selection can be limited by availability of technological infrastructure and equipment, such as Internet connection speed, hardware, and software performance. It is obvious that learners of distance education can benefit more and have a wider range of educational technology to choose from if the environment has favorable technological support.

Management refers to cost-effectiveness of selected medium as well as “storage facilities, technical support, instructor training requirements, and general disruption that may be caused by use of the medium” (Richey, Klein, & Tracey, 2010, p.143). While some schools and institutes are willing to invest in educational technologies by purchasing software for instructional purposes, some may have limited resources to do so. Therefore, sometimes instructors are limited to choosing among existing technologies while considering what tools to use in order to reinforce positive learning behavior as well as to sequence instructional tasks.

There are many media selection models that take into account the various factors that may impact instruction and learning. For example, the Reiser and Gagne model (1983) proposes flowcharts of a series of questions to consider before coming to a media selection decision based on whether learners are readers or nonreaders, individualized instruction or grouped instruction, and more. No matter which selection model an instructor may choose, it is always important to give comprehensive consideration to the five factors we discussed in this chapter.

A Look Ahead: Moving Forward with Delivery Methods in Distance Education

Convergence of Technology and Media

Looking ahead to the future, there are some emerging trends in distance education that are worth noting. One important trend is the convergence of Internet-based technologies and mobile phone technologies. This includes education becoming more portable and mobile by learners carrying smaller and smarter devices. For many of the Internet-based delivery methods we have discussed in this chapter, there are mobile application (app) versions in the market as well. For example, the Canvas learning management system. It has an app that starts with a straightforward user interface with a list of courses in which the user is registered and five buttons on the bottom of the screen that allow users to navigate among different features and content as they would when browsing the website version. It is worth noting, however, that not all of the mobile versions of delivery methods are equipped with a full body of website-version features. For example, the Conference and Collaborations features of Canvas are not currently supported in the most recent app version 3.15.3. However learners are able to access most of the other information on their mobile phones the same way they do on the website version. With the mobile version at hand, learners can keep track of their learning process on the go. Another emerging trend in educational technology is the convergence of media; this refers to different forms of media (visuals, audio, print, video, etc.) merging into one resource or environment. One tool that is an example of this trend is GoAnimate, an animation creation tool which allows users to create their own digital stories with visuals and audio. The tool allows users to simply drag and drop settings, characters, background items, and more from templates into the storyboard. Users can then add voice dialog or import audio files to sync with the animation.

Game-Based Learning

Another trend that can be observed today is the development of games for educational purposes. Many scholars have argued that players learn by following the rules, identifying problems, and coming up with solutions in the micro-world in which the games created. Games can also be informative. For example, the historical simulation game Civilization 3 makes players think about all the possible factors that may impact the progress of a civilization, such as urban development, military power, technologies advancement, diplomatic and trading, and more. Most of the knowledge that players learn from the games is transferrable to identifying real world problems. It is true that there has been continuous criticism on the negative influence of violence in games, therefore it is important for educational game designers to think about how to carefully maneuver gameplay when designing games for educational purposes.

Virtual Reality

This chapter was written a few days after Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg’s virtual reality (VR) demonstration on October 6th, 2016; it was natural to include this into a trend of the future of distance education. In the VR demonstration, each participant has an avatar (a cartoon representation of themselves) and the three involved participants can simultaneously see each other’s simulated facial and body expressions, go on virtual expeditions, as well as finish certain tasks together. According to the Media Theory, if virtual reality successfully brings authentic learning up another level, both instruction and learning will be positively enhanced.

Conclusion

Incorporating technology into education fosters an authentic learning environment, facilitates smoother interaction among all possible parties, and increases educational accessibility to all. The methods and technologies we discussed in this chapter are moving us closer to this goal. Also, advancements in delivery methods in distance education today will take us even further in creating a more engaging, motivational, and effective learning experience. We surely all look forward to embracing these technologies.

Chapter Summary

In this chapter, we have briefly reviewed the history of delivery methods in distance education. We also categorized the delivery methods into asynchronous and synchronous depending on whether they require learners and instructors to be online at the same time. We then compared the different delivery methods and discussed factors to consider when selecting the suitable combination of these technologies for instruction. Finally, we ended the chapter with a look at the trending and emerging new delivery methods for distance education. In the following chapter, the facilitation and quality of distance education will be explored.

Discussions

• Discuss the history of delivery methods in distance education and how this history has led to contemporary delivery methods. Then, using what you know about contemporary delivery methods, predict what you think the trends of delivery methods in distance education will be in the near future.
• Differentiate between synchronous and asynchronous delivery methods and discuss the contexts in which each type of learning activity is preferred.
• Demonstrate an understanding of asynchronous delivery methods used in distance education by analyzing multiple asynchronous learning tools, by examining their features and implementation issues.
• Demonstrate an understanding of synchronous delivery methods used in distance education by analyzing multiple synchronous learning tools, by examining their features and implementation issues.
• Identify the factors to consider when selecting a delivery method in distance education and provide examples of different methods being used in different contexts.

Assignment Exercises

1. Develop a timeline of the history of delivery methods in distance education.
2. Look up three contemporary delivery methods or learning tools used in distance education and describe how you would use it for a distance education course, the type of course and learning environment you would use it in, and possible implementation issues. Justify all of your decisions.
3. Think about a course you have taken in a traditional classroom and answer the following questions: A) What type of delivery methods would you implement to deliver this course online instead of in a traditional classroom? B) Why would you choose these methods? Think about how content can affect decisions like these.
4. Make a Venn Diagram comparing features of asynchronous and synchronous delivery methods used in distance education. Then, add learning tools that fall into each section of the Venn Diagram.
5. Make a concept map with “Distance Education Delivery Methods” in the center. Include the following terms; asynchronous methods, synchronous methods, features, implementation issues, learning environment, learning management systems, collaborative tools, authoring tools, assessment tools, virtual classrooms, and selecting delivery methods.

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