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Instruction System Design Models
Instructional system design (ISD) models are tools used by
instructional designers and human performance technologist to develop
instruction systematically. Theses models - in the simplest sense - are
used
to ensure that instruction is not developed in a haphazard manner. The
development of quality instruction does not happen on accident and
there are established procedures to assure the instruction meets needs
and goals of learners.
Instructional
systems design models have
a long history with roots as far back as the 1960s, particularly in
the United States military (Silvern, 1965). By the
early 1970s, ISD methods and models had become common practice in all
branches of the U. S. military and started to appear in
business and industry for the development of training
programs (Reiser & Dempsey, 2002). The original ISD
models were
largely based on the philosophies and values of the behaviorism, which
is a branch of psychology that emphasizes the importance of observable
and measurable human behaviors. In more recent history, newer ISD
models have been developed in favor of the
cognitive and constructive explanations of learning (Dick, 2006).
However, the tenets of behaviorism are still very important to
the study and the practice of instructional system design.
Dick and Carey Model
As pointed out by Reiser and Dempsey (2002), many different ISD models
have been described and implemented in theory and practice.
Perhaps the most influential ISD model developed is the Dick and Carey
model. The Dick and Carey model is illustrated in Figure 1. Note that
one very important aspect of the model is the emphasis on writing
performance objectives, which are based on learners, their context, and
the tasks to be performed. You might also notice that, in the Dick and
Carey model, writing performance objectives is the key activity that
must completed in order to move forward in the instructional design
process. Over the years, the Dick and Carey model has been revised, but
it still one of the key ISD models used in practice (Dick, 2006).
Figure 1. Dick and Carey model
(1996).
The first stage of the Dick and Carey model is to assess needs and
identify goals (1). This process involves a needs analysis
and the identification of instructional goals. During the
needs analysis the instructional designer or human performance
technologist attempts to identify the problem, the the causes of the
problem, and then identifies a list of solutions that could solve the
problem. The result of this process is one or more well-defined
instructional goals. These goals are usually stated in terms of new
skills, knowledge, or attitudes that the learners should acquire.
At this point, it is important to note that instruction may not be the
answer to the problem. This can become troubling if instruction is used
as an intervention because it will not lead to the desired outcomes.
For instance,
sometimes the existing problems are a results of a lack of management
follow up or enforcement of policy. If this were identified as the
cause of the problem, instruction would not effect the outcome because
management follow up may be the essential solution of the appropriate
tasks to be performed. It is the responsibility of
the instructional designer or human performance technologist to be able
to identify the appropriate scenarios for instructional intervention.
After having stated a description of learning needs and a clearly
stated instructional goal, the next step is to conduct an instructional
analysis (2). An instructional analysis "is a set
of procedures that, when applied to an instructional goal, results in
the identification of the relevant steps for performing a goal and the
subordinate skills required for a student to achieve the goal" (Dick
& Carey, 1996, p. 38). There are two fundamental steps involved
in conducting the instructional analysis. The first is to classify the
type of learning outcome involved in achieving the goal. In order to be
able to effectively classify goals, instructional designers and human
performance technologists must have an understanding of the types of
learning outcome or domains. The following are learning domains often
used: verbal, intellectual, cognitive, motor skills, and attitudes
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2002).
The second task involves taking goal statement and analyzing it in
order to
identify the steps involved in order for a learner to perform the goal.
Often, instructional designers and human performance technologists will
use flowcharts or activity diagrams to outline the relevant steps to
accomplish the goals. Figure 2 provides an example in which a goal is
stated and the relevant sub-tasks are defined and sequenced.
Figure 2.
Goals and subtasks.
The next phase of the Dick and Carey model is to analyze the learners and
the context (3). There are numerous factors that influence
how a person learns from a particular environment, which might include
prior knowledge of the individuals, their cognitive traits,
motivations, learning preferences, or overall interaction within the
learning environment. Collecting this information from a learner
population will help to inform the instructional design process,
especially the performance objectives.
Learner characteristics, however, are not the only important factors to
explore. The context of a learning environment and the context of the
environment in which the learner will have to perform is also essential
to the instructional design process. The learning
environment, for instance, must include any tools and resources that
are necessary for the learning tasks. The context of the environment in
which the learners must perform might refers to the level of support
from project sponsors (e.g., managers). If the learners acquire new
skills that are not applicable to the environment in which they
expected to perform, than the transfer of the newly acquired skills
will be ineffective.
After having completed the end of the first three stages of the Dick
and Carey model, one should end up with a clear idea of the problems,
solutions, instructional goals, who the learners are, and the
context in which they will eventually use their knowledge and skills.
With this information, instructional designers and human performance
technologists write performance objectives that are appropriate for the
learners and contexts. Writing performance objectives is the topic of
the following section and of this tutorial. However, without some basic
background, describing how performance objectives are written and
derived is almost impossible!
Review Activity
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References
Dick, W. (2006). The dick and carey model: Will it survive the decade? Educational Technology Research
and Development, 44(3), 1042-1629.
Dick, W. & Carey, L. (1996). The systematic design of
instruction,
4th edition. New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.
Reiser, R. A., Dempsey, J. V. (2002). Trends and issues in
instructional design and technology. Toronto: Pearson Education Inc.
Slivern, L. C. (1965). Basic analysis. Los Angeles: Education and
Training Consultants Company.
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